Evaluating two freely available geocoding tools for geographical inconsistencies and geocoding errors

Background: Geocoding is highly prone to error for various reasons. This paper examines the geographical inconsistencies associated with geocoding errors seen when using two freely available geocoding tools, Google Sheets and ggmap. Methods: Two hundred restaurants, all recipients of California’s Center of Excellence award, were selected for the analysis. The geocoded addresses were plotted on maps using QGIS, Google Maps, OpenStreetMap (OSM), and Google Earth for visualization, comparison, and validation. A stepwise method of analyzing the geographical inconsistencies is provided that can be adapted for any locational analytics. Results and discussion: Both Google Sheets and ggmap were able to successfully geocode all 200 addresses, but ggmap incorrectly geocoded eight addresses as being more than 2,000 miles from their actual location. Addresses containing the ampersand character, &, caused ggmap to incorrectly geocode their location. After replacing the ampersand with the word and, ggmap was able to correctly geocode those addresses. The corrected locations plotted on Google Maps and OSM were similar, and they exactly matched the actual locations when plotted on Google Earth. Conclusions: Both Google Sheets and ggmap are equally capable of geocoding physical locations, but R users are advised that addresses for geocoding must be free of the ampersand character if correct results are to be obtained. In addition, geocoded outputs should be plotted on a map using QGIS, ArcGIS, Google Maps, OSM, R, or any other such mapping tools for visualization and validation. This will ensure a high-quality geospatial analysis of places or events when locational information is vital for decision-making.